Medical expenses †deductibility in personal income taxation

Federal Income tax code specifies the generally deductible expenses in the personal taxation of an individual which include medical expenses, certain taxes, mortgage interest, investment interest and charitable contributions. These deductions mentioned in the chapter are known as itemized deductions. It has to be noted that any expenditures not specifically allowed as itemized deductions are not allowable against the personal income subject to tax. Medical expenses paid out by the taxable individual on himself, spouse and dependents are allowed as an itemized deduction. The additional points to be noted are that the deduction is allowed only to the extent to which the medical expenses are not reimbursed and the deduction is limited to 7.5% of the taxpayers Adjusted Gross Income. 1.0   DEFINITION OF MEDICAL EXPENSES The definition of medical expenses is very broad to cover not only the expenses incurred for the diagnosis, cure, mitigation, treatment, or prevention of the disease but also covers expenses incurred for preventive health cover and costs of periodic physical and dental examinations of the taxpayer. The important point here is that such deductions are allowed even when the taxpayer is in good health. Hence, such medical expenses incurred for the treatment of diseases affecting any structure or function of the body are termed as medical expenses for the purpose of assessing the income for tax purposes. 2.0   COSMETIC SURGERY-DEDUCTIBILITY Expenses incurred for Cosmetic Surgery are deductible when the surgery is necessary to ameliorate a deformity arising from a congenial abnormality or a personal injury or A disfiguring disease. Any medical expenses incurred on cosmetic surgery for purposes other than those which are unnecessary are not deductible. For example, fees paid to a cosmetic surgeon for a face lift of a person of 75 years age to improve his appearance is unnecessary and hence not deductible. But the cost of restoring the face by cosmetic surgery, which is disfigured in an accident, is deductible. 3.0   DEDUCTIBILITY OF CERTAIN OTHER EXPENSES 4.1 COSTS INCURRED IN A NURSING HOME/HOME FOR AGED When a person is admitted in a nursing home or home for the aged primarily to get medical care, then the expenses incurred for the nursing home expenses including meals and lodging are allowable as a deduction. However if the primary concern for being admitted to the nursing home or the home for aged is personal, only the expenses paid for medical or cursing is deductible, whereas, costs of lodging and meals are not deductible. 4.2 TUITION EXPENSES When a dependent is sent to a school having special resources for alleviating the infirmities caused by mental or physical disability, the tuition expenses paid to the school is an allowable deduction. In such cases, the cost of meals and lodging in addition to the tuition fees is allowable. 4.3 MEDICAL EXPENSES INCURRED FOR SPOUSE AND DEPENDENTS A taxpayer is entitled to claim the deduction in his adjusted gross income of the medical expenses incurred by him on his/her spouse and for a person who is dependent on him/her at the time such expenses were incurred. Again the dependency is to be determined on the basis of certain criteria as spelt out in the Act and the schedules. 4.4 EXPENSES INCURRED ON TRANSPORTATION, MEALS AND LODGING FOR MEDICAL TREATMENT Transportation costs like bus, taxi, train or plane fare, charges for ambulance services and out of pocket expenses for the use of an automobile for commuting to and from a point of treatment for medical care are deductible. The taxpayer is entitled to choose either a mileage allowance or actual out-of-pocket automobile expenses. Deduction is allowed for the related parking fees and toll charges, whereas the cost of meals, en route are not allowed as a deduction. Similarly the cost of transportation of a parent accompanying a sick child or a nurse or other attendant accompanying a person who is traveling to get medical care is allowable, provided it is so that the patient can not travel alone and needs an aid to accompany during the journey. The Lodging expenses which are incurred essentially for medical care, when the medical care is provided by a doctor in a licensed hospital or clinic are allowed as deduction. No lavish or extravagant lodging expenses involving significant element of personal pleasure recreation or vacation in the travel away from home is allowed as deduction. The limit for such lodging expenses eligible for deduction is $50 per night for the patient as well as the person who must accompany the patient. 4.5 ALLOWABILITY MEDICAL INSURANCE PREMIUMS AS DEDUCTION The maximum limit of 7.5 % of the adjusted gross income of the taxpayer allowable as deduction include the medical insurance premiums, irrespective of the fact that such premiums are paid under a group or individual plan. When the medical insurance premium is paid by the employer such premium is not included in the income of the taxpayer and it cannot be included in the employee’s medical expense either. Insurance premiums paid by a self employed person are allowed as a business income. The premium paid for the spouse and dependents also qualify for deduction. Premiums paid by companies on their employees health care is allowed as business expenditure for the companies concerned. 4.0   DEDCUTION OF CAPITAL EXPENDITURES INCURRED FOR MEDICAL PURPOSES When swimming is a part of a medical treatment and there is no availability of a neighborhood pool then the capital expenses incurred on constructing such pool will become eligible for deduction. Similarly a Window Air-conditioner which is not permanent in nature, dust elimination system, elevators and a room built to house an iron lung are some of the examples of allowable capital expenditure. The basic criteria in determining the allowability of such expenditure is that they are required as medical necessity upon the advice of a doctor or physician, the facility is used primarily by the patient alone and the expenditure is reasonable. Similarly expenditure like constructing entrance and exit ramps to the residence widening hallways and doorways to accommodate wheelchair, installing support bars and railings in bathrooms and other living rooms and adjusting any electrical outlets or fixtures offer themselves eligible for deduction provided that the expenditure is incurred to enable a physically handicapped individual live independently and productively. If a capital expenditure is allowed as a medical expense, then the allowable cost is deductible in the year incurred. All these expenses are allowed subject to the overall ceiling of 7.5% of the adjusted gross income. 5.0   DEDUCTION ARE ALLOWED ON A CASH BASIS Whatever be the method of accounting adopted by the individual, the medical expenses are deductible on a cash basis. This means that the are deductible only in the year in which they are paid with an exception in the case of deceased person, when the expenses are paid within a year of death then the expenses would be deemed to have paid at the time when they are incurred. Deduction is not allowed currently for any medical expenses that is going to be incurred in the future, subject of course to the exception that the taxpayer has an obligation to pay the fees in advance under the policy of the physician or the institution furnishing the medical care.                                                          Works Cited          â€Å"Hoffman, Smith, Wills – Individual income taxes 2007 Chapter 10 pp 10-2 to 10-8 West Federal Taxation (Thomson)         

Accident Analysis Essay

In January 25, 1990, Avianca Flight 52, a Boeing 707 left Bogota, Colombia for New York. After more than an hour of delay, the plane ran out of fuel and crashed in the town of Cove Neck, Long Island, New York, killing 73 people, including 9 crew members and 65 of the 149 passengers, and injuring the rest. Analysis of this accident would show how human error, faulty systems and bad weather conditions caused this accident. The flight crew did not officially declare that they were running out of fuel until it was already too late. The accident could have been avoided if the flight crew has clearly stated that they were really in trouble. Language barrier could have played a part since the crew only asked for â€Å"priority† which in Spanish could mean that they were in trouble. The crew should have notified their fuel load to Air Traffic Control when they were put on hold for the first time. This simple information could have made the difference. ATC could have suggested earlier an alternate airport had they known this information. Instead, the pilots literally went around in circles waiting for further instructions. By the time the flight was cleared for landing, it only had enough fuel for one last approach. When the plane was on its final approach, it encountered wind shear, a change of wind direction over short distances. ATC only informed the flight crew of wind shear at 1500 feet. The crew had to abort their approach because they would fall short of the runway. The flight was doomed after that incident. Even if they were redirected to an alternate airport prior to the approach, they would not have enough fuel to make it to Boston. The question now is why the flight crew didn’t consult their flight dispatch about possible alternate airports which are not as busy as the John F. Kennedy International. The answer maybe the breaking of the sterile cockpit rule below 10,000 feet. The sterile cockpit rule below 10,000 feet states that pilots should not talk about things that are not necessary during crucial stages of the flight, which is usually below 10,000 feet. The pilots mind may have wandered off due to the long delay the Air Traffic Control has given them. In a sense, Air Traffic Control failed to prioritize air traffic in JFK international. Though Avianca flight 52 did not declare its fuel load problems earlier, it did say that it wanted priority. In like mentioned earlier, due to language barrier, â€Å"priority† may have been already a distress call. Air Traffic Control confirmed this request but what kind of priority is a seventy seven minute delay? Obviously, the failure of the flight crew and Air Traffic Control to communicate properly resulted to this horrible accident. This accident could have been avoided if the airline had their own operational control dispatch system that could have assisted them when Air Traffic Control has apparently ignored them. A standardized terminology in fuel related problems also contributed to the plane’s crash. If there was only a universal term to describe what the flight was actually experiencing, the language barrier between Air Traffic Control and the pilots would have been irrelevant. To sum up, the plane crash was a result of contributing factors, communication problems, probable mental lapse of the pilots, lack of proper terminology, and unfavorable winds. This accident proves that constant communication is important in air travel and a high level of concentration is required for the job. Pilots should be trained extensively before giving them their licences, including language training that ensures pilots can converse well in English. In this aspect, a standard language for aeronautical terms should be established. Though the wind shear caused further delay, the plane could have made another attempt if only it had not been idle for more than hour.

Political Correctness Essay

From the time man developed his ability to interact with other people using the speech code, his work became more intensified and his job became more highlighted as it was not easy to communicate with each other and still be left ‘politically correct’. The term ‘politically correct’ was meant to be used to filter out humiliating words and it was a concept that was brought in to be more palpable and social in this world. Like every good concept in the world, being politically correct is also applied in the work place scenario. The applying of the statement of being ‘politically correct’ depends on by what intent it is used for while working in offices or be it educational institutes. The intent behind the usage of the term was to manifest a certain amount of diplomacy and tactfulness when it came to criticizing a colleague in mortifying terms. It was only a way in which things can be put up against the use of words that would degrade another person. However, as seen in most work places, people work with zero tolerance levels and are ready to snap at each other on a pin’s drop, completely misuse the political correctness scenario, and ultimately the entire purpose for which it was brought in to the world gets dampened, as the term becomes high in use for those people who actually want to humiliate and degrade other people. The high bullying of the term can be assessed by the following: ‘But despite political correctness, discrimination against minorities and the powerless, still flourish globally. We are not more civilized – in fact, we are slipping into anarchy and we are living in a violent world and people who are at ease with themselves, in touch with themselves and accepting of all people, use the politically incorrect terms to refer to themselves. The abuse of political correctness is in essence dishonesty and it ignores the consultative process and very often those who are affected (like the visually impaired), and because we are not at ease with the New Terminology, it is often the object of jokes – clearly indicating that political correctness causes tension within ourselves’. (Dr. Susan Steinman, â€Å"Politically correct – the smokescreen by which bullying thrives†. Retrieved on April 13, 2008 from site http://www.worktrauma.org/change/politically_correct.htm) When misused, political correctness becomes harsher and makes an employee working in an organization feel much suffocated. The concept of the term is probably to say the word in a much better way, for instance the word African American over the words black people. Here the point is getting across of defining a sect of people without being racially abusive towards them. But employees might face racism worse by using political correct statement i.e. by stressing on the word African than American, as to signify the existence from a different continent. This kind of unwarranted political correctness is harmful and can lead to major hindrances in communication and would scar a colleague emotionally on terms of being abused either racially or by the way one has knowledge or even by the way one looks. Another way in the office people with wrong intentions can have hindrance in effective communication is by acting perky and snobby when using these politically correct terms and ultimately it would widen the gaps between office colleagues and subordinates on the line of being snooty and insensitive. Communication is a major asset of the working environment in an office. If it is tampered with on the grounds of political correctness, it would only lead to miscommunication and differences between people working, thus hurting everybody who would be in accord to it. Reference: 1) Dr. Susan Steinman, â€Å"Politically correct – the smokescreen by which bullying thrives†. http://www.worktrauma.org/change/politically_correct.htm 2) http://www.associatedcontent.com/article/174790/how_to_be_politically_correct_in_the.html

Who should we hire Education vs. experience Research Paper

Who should we hire Education vs. experience - Research Paper Example Would an individual with extensive experience in a certain field have an advantage over another who has passed through the ranks of higher education with exemplary grades or vice versa? Careers are solely served by experience since people with experience will take off quickly on the job and become company asset from the very onset. Work experience is a priceless asset that demonstrates one’s enthusiasm, knowledge and skills for a particular job. It is thus clear that employers prefer experience to education in recruiting employees since the former take on-board experienced talent that contributes to productivity of organisations from the first day. Today’s job market features people who are either book-smart from academia or those who have real work experience. In rare cases one will find job seekers who are well rounded in both fields and hence when hiring, the employer has to narrow down on the best candidate to fit the job description. When an individual is well educ ated it means that he has succeeded in academia and his knowledge opens opportunities for him. A degree from a top institution opens doors simply through reputation and it signifies that the graduate studied under well-trained lecturers and immersed oneself in a particular discipline; obtaining a broad set of educational skills and expertise in that field. A higher degree is a show that a graduate possesses a particular set of skills that has the ability to be translated into work skills. Whilst, working experience is a proof to the employer that the potential employee has real-work skills and experience. A college degree is only helpful in understanding theories in the work place but practical realities of a certain job are only attained at work. â€Å"Higher Education only proves you can succeed in academia, not in a real-world job† (Mueller 1), and this indicates that experience is preferred to education in jobs market. In today’s competitive job market the employer s are lowering fresh hiring in favour of candidates who have work-experience, and often prefer â€Å"...to take on-board experienced talent who can contribute to their productivity from the first day† (Saha 1). This is influenced by several factors; working experience provides exposure that is much needed in the working environment. The working environment is characterised by multiple situations, circumstances, variables, problems and their suitable solutions and therefore an experienced hand has an advantage in dealing with the various work-related issues. Exposure gives the employee the ability to predict and foresee future variances and hence able to make adjustments to prevent adverse variances, therefore forming a great advantage. Furthermore, working experience provide one with a huge sense of interpersonal compatibility by building better interpersonal skills. This is built by having worked with different groups of people who emerge from varied backgrounds, abilities a nd experiences; at the same time ensuring working together to direct their efforts to get the work done successfully. Experienced talent is majorly accompanied with the knowledge of interacting with different profile of people both on a domestic and world level. Experience promotes one’s understanding of synergy in achieving a unified goal and teaches one that best results are hardly achieved in solitude; but in integration which pools different expertise to achieve best results at work (Saha). In addition, experienced talent has a multi-skill capability that adds value to an individual as he presents himself for a job opportunity. The multi-skill capability is gained over a long period of time as one is involved in doing different roles; adding an advantage as one applies for a job.

Marketing Communication Plan for Green and Black Organic Essay

Marketing Communication Plan for Green and Black Organic - Essay Example The intention of this study is Green and Black organic as basically a premium priced chocolate manufacturing company founded in 1991 in United Kingdom by a couple named: Craig Sams and Josephine Fairley. The name of the brand Green and Black Organic is very meaningful. The Green in the brand name represents the organic quality of the brand and Black represents the dark chocolate which is basically the specialty and core product of the brand. The brand expanded and added Maya Gold to its product range in the year 1994 when the two founders of the Green and Black Organic met up with some Mayan smallholder farmers who planted cocoa trees and agreed to buy at a fair price. These cocoa beans were used to create the traditional flavor of Mayan chocolate drink. Green and Black Organic earned the UK’s first Fair-trade mark as a result of Maya Gold. In the year 2005, Green and Black Organic was bought by Cadbury Plc. Kraft foods finally got hold of the company in the year 2010. The com petition of the Green and Black Organic includes; Toblerone, Lindt and Thorntons. Green and Black Organic has asked the A team agency to come up with a Marketing Communication Plan to help it to not only sustain its market share but also work to increase it. The marketing plan will aim to create increased awareness about the brand so that consumers do not mind paying the extra pound. The A team agency has been provided with a budget of 750,000 pounds to develop a marketing plan for Green and Black Organic.... This paper will focus on marketing communication strategies, objectives and finally the plan proposed for Green and Black organic chocolate that aims to convert dark into rainbow. This proposal is prepared to be presented before an agency by Green and Black organic for illustrating their communication strategies they are thinking to opt. Company’s Brief- Green and Black Organic Green and black organic is now owned by Cadbury, which has 30% of the total market share in London. The company was initially carrying out its operations individually, but later it came under the control of Cadbury. SWOT analysis: In order to assess the current and past performance of the company, SWOT analysis was carried out for the purpose of analyzing strengths, weaknesses, opportunities and threats. Strength Following are the factors that made Green and Black organic a successful company in confectionary industry. Manufacturing chocolates from organic food. Dark chocolates prepared from 70% of coco a beans. Operating under the name of Cadbury. Regarded as first manufacturers of chocolate from organic substance. Employment of good marketing activities as compared to those conducted by small brands. Weaknesses Following are the weaknesses of Green and Black organic Most of the people do not prefer eating dark chocolates so this can result in reduction in sales volume. The size of the company is too small and so, it cannot extend its operation in areas outside the borders of London. As the name of the company does not specify anything related to chocolate, so people can misunderstand the name green and black organic. Opportunities Green and black can earn huge revenues if it focuses and avail following opportunities Manufacturing of chocolate butters and chocolate

Leader Centric Approaches versus Group-Centric Approaches Essay

Leader Centric Approaches versus Group-Centric Approaches - Essay Example Employees expect corporate company leaders to be people of superior character and serve as role models to their employees. Trust and commitment are very important in ethical leadership. Ethical standards of leaders should not be diverse from those of the followers. Ethical behavior â€Å"†¦means that which is morally right, as opposed to that which is legally or procedurally right† (Kanungo, 2001, p. 258). Despite nurturing leaders out of morally imperfect humans, we still expect them to perform in an exemplary manner despite the challenges they face in their managerial endeavors. Appreciating the moral characteristics and challenges of leaders is elemental in understanding the nature of leaders. It is thus important to understand the ethical failures of leaders in order to understand the development of leadership. Based on ethical values, motives, and assumptions, transformational and transactional leadership behaviors are considered ethical. Transformational leaders have moral philanthropic motives grounded in a deontological perspective. Transactional leaders, on the other hand, have atomistic mutually altruistic intentions based on a teleological perspective. Basically, â€Å"Transformational leadership appears to be most closely connected to deontology, while transactional leadership would seem to be related more to teleological ethics†.... Transactional leaders, on the other hand, have atomistic mutually altruistic intentions based on a teleological perspective (Burnes & By 2012; Kanungo, 2001). Basically, â€Å"Transformational leadership appears to be most closely connected to deontology, while transactional leadership would seem to be related more to teleological ethics† (Aronson, 2001, p. 245). Certain leadership traits are important for effective leadership, most leaders, particularly American leaders, lack them. These traits include the ability to inspire; vision, supportiveness, self-sacrifice, genuineness, personal responsibility; being non-egalitarian, not discriminatory, honest, and selfless. These traits are crucial and require societal acceptance for the development of effective leadership (Bertsch, 2012). Leadership Ethics Leaders tend to act as if they have a different code of ethics from that of their followers. According to Guillen and Gonzalez (2001), â€Å"Leadership goes beyond the scope of f ormal power and involves a continuous exchange of influence and free acceptance.† Leaders tend to justify their actions and make it appear as if the rightfulness or the wrongfulness of an action is dependent on the person doing the action (Bertsch, 2012, p.176). The main difference between the leader-centric approach and the group-centric approach lies in considering leaders as special in the leader-centric approaches and considering them as equal with their followers in the group-centric approach. Leader-centric ethics approaches tend to justify the actions of the leaders since they consider leaders as special entities who deserve special treatment on moral issues (Ciulla, 2001).On the other hand,

Analysis of Bottled Water Markets Coursework Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1250 words

Analysis of Bottled Water Markets - Coursework Example The demand of bottled drinking water in the UK and the rest of the world have been rising steadily over the years. In the UK, the bottled water industry holds a significant share in the soft drinks industry. In 2011, 1682 million litres of bottled drinking water were consumed and the total drinking water bottle production was 1692 million litres. Per person consumption of bottled drinking water was 34 litres in 2011. People consumed bottled drinking water more than nectar juices, wine etc (British Bottled Water Producers, 2011).  In the UK, drinking water consumption has increased drastically, that is why supplies have increased and bottled drinking water has become a necessity for many (Weissberg, 2008). The supply and demand of a product usually depends upon the price of the product and other economic factors (Jain and Khanna, 2007). However, in this particular case the price of the packaged drinking water does not have much impact on consumers as, water is a necessary beverage. The basic increase in demand of bottled drinking water is due to the loss of faith of the public in tap water system of the country (Bridges and Linkov, 2011). This has boosted the sales of packaged water. When consumers travel, they prefer packaged water because it is convenient to carry and trustworthy in terms of quality.     The average price of a 500 ml bottled drinking water sold by the restaurants of UK is  £1 and for restaurant owners is  £1 a litre. This data shows the availability of safe drinking water in restaurants and diners in the UK (Hickman, 2013). Demand of a product arouses when the consumer has a certain desire to own that product and to fulfill their requirement,the goods are supplied by the supplier (Jain and Khanna, 2007). The demand of the bottled drinking water is high and but its price is low.  When there is an average demand of bottled drinking water, the demand can be met by the suppliers very easily. However, when the demand of bottled drinking water will increase, it will be difficult for the suppliers to meet the growing demand of consumers. The bottled drinking water is purified by the water purifier companies and is infused with vitamins and minerals. This process takes a lot of time and to ensure quality of the products, the time factor is very important for manufacturers of bottled drinking water.

Rousseau's Social Contract and John Stuart Mill's On Liberty Research Paper

Rousseau's Social Contract and John Stuart Mill's On Liberty - Research Paper Example The two philosophers have also delved into the relationship that exists between the government and liberty, while also investigating the valid basis for limiting liberty. Mill’s position on the concept of liberty is based on the observation that the majority in the society has the opportunity to dominate the minority, and thus subject them under their own authority (Mill, 12). As a result of this observation, Mills advocates for individuality, where individuals possess their own rights that are not interfered by the society and thus can be able to shape their own destiny without depending on the influence of the society, which is highly driven by the tyranny of the majority. On his part, Jean–Jacques Rousseau observes that man was born in freedom, to be absolutely free, but he is always in chain whenever he is (Rousseau,). In an attempt to devise the right ways of developing a political community, he devised the fundamental concept of the liberty of people. Pitched on t he argument that only the people can develop the rules that should govern them, and anything short of that is unacceptable. Therefore, this discussion seeks to compare Rousseau's Social Contract and John Stuart Mill's On Liberty, with a view to assessing their points of congruence and departure, in regards to the concept of liberty and the freedom of man. ... Therefore, it is the institutions like that of private ownership of property that has made man bad (r). This is because, with the introduction of such institutions, man has been corrupted and made mean, so that he attempts to own as much as he can, without any due regard for the others. If there were no private ownership of property, a man could not be such corrupt or mean, because he could only use what is enough for him, and leave the rest for others, thus creating equality for all. Therefore, the existence of institutions has destroyed man’s pity and benevolence. Thus the fundamental basis for Rousseau’s belief in liberty is equality and security, where the man can obey himself, while still uniting himself with all, and retaining the ever unlimited freedom (Rousseau, 33). According to him, only institutions create inequality and insecurity. Mills, on the other hand, observes the fundamental basis for liberty as individuality and individual basic rights, which he obse rves are the basis for the good citizenship, which translates to a healthy society, and consequently to the freedom of mankind (Mill, 24). He observes that individuals should have the freedom from constraint by the government, but that is associated with self-rule. Therefore, Mills differs with Rousseau regarding the fundamental basis of freedom, by arguing that individual rights grant man freedom, and by extension makes the society free. On his part, Rousseau argues that individual rights make an individual a slave of oneself, by making him obey his self-desire (Rousseau, 56).  

Telecommunication Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words - 2

Telecommunication - Essay Example Today communication is carried out over long distances using pictures and audio, which compromises of music and voice. The sound at present, transfers throughout the world through electricity. Electricity is, therefore, an important part of communication. Radios and television produce the output of various visual and audio signals. They act as the final point where the data that has been transferred from the stations offering audio and video. The audio and video are transmitted through equipment that helps in converting to electrical signals, which are then transferred over long distances (Noll, 1995). Signals are an important part of communication. They are classified according to the frequencies they have. The various signals are used in radios and television where audio and video are transmitted over different frequencies. UHF and VHF are the frequency bands related to television. The transmitter sends the audio and video through the communication channel. Signal carry visual and audio through transmission channels to the point of final output. The radios and television receiver the signals from the receiver and a person can tune to get the audio or videos. Spectra helps to differentiate between the various waves and the frequencies of the waves. Different electromagnetic waves characterize the signals transmitted over a communication channel. They are used in delineating the various media and communication channels and signals. Bandwidth is usually allocated to communication channels depending on the different frequencies in the signal. Electricity plays an important part in communication since in the modern world signals transmitted with the help of electricity. Power circuits are affected by inductance and capacities, which helps in filtering the various signals. Inductance and capacitance play a greater role in differentiating the signals into the different frequencies and thereby enabling the transmitted message to reach the intended point. The

Hume’s critique of rational causation Essay Example for Free

Hume’s critique of rational causation Essay If you look out over the world, everything is held together by something philosophers have called Causation. The rain falls and feed the streams, rivers, and oceans that then evaporate back up into the atmosphere where it gathers in clouds waiting to come back down as rain. When it rains, trees grow, turn carbon dioxide into oxygen, and other living things thrive. The circle of life is but a chain of causes and effects, and Causation is the common sense idea that one thing or event causes another. The idea of causation can be rationally expressed in the following relation: If X, then Y. So, for example, I am used to the light coming on after I flip the switch. In this case, my flipping the switch causes the light to go on. But what if I flip the switch and the light does not come on? I may deduce that this is because the light has burned out. This is because, in my experience, whenever the light does not come on it is because the light has burned out. This is what Hume calls associationism; that is, the tendency that we have, as humans, to link up to things that we normally experience together or in sequence. The difference between rationalist causation and Hume’s associationism is that causation is meant to establish a relation of certainty between the cause and its effect, whereas the latter says that all we can know is that one is a correlate of the other – that is, that in the past X and Y came together in a sequence, but this in and of itself is n guarantee that this will be the case in the future. If Hume is right, then we have no way to know what the future will bring, and cannot make any predictions that might carry the weight of certainty. Hume critique of rational causation is based on his distinction between two kinds of objects of knowledge corresponding to two different and separate bodies of knowledge. He theorizes that there is knowledge that express the relation between ideas, and that this is different from knowledge that has to do with matter of fact things about the world. The relationship between there two epistemological realms is not necessary: that is, we can have certain mathematical knowledge about perfect circles, but this has little to do with human experience. Similarly, the rational idea of cause and effect (if X, then Y) expresses a logical relation, but it is a categorical mistake to assert that this principle can be used to gain or secure knowledge about the world. So, Hume argues that although we perceive one event following another, we can never be certain of it. We cannot say, of things in the world we perceive and experience, that one thing caused another in part because we cannot see (perceive) causation (because it is an idea, or a logical relation). What we perceive is one thing of event that we come to associate (through force of habit) with the other. So, for example, to take Hume’s example: you see a cue hit a ball, and the ball takes off across the pool table and goes into a pocket. Where is causation? If you cannot perceive it, then how do you know about it. (Hume assumes, along with the other Modern British Empiricists that there are no innate ideas and all human knowledge is based on human experience). Hume’s critique of causation is both simple and devastating to the sciences, where causation is the basis for both inductive and deductive logic. Not only can we not predict the future with certainty, but we cannot know causes by their effects (or the past from the present). This took the wind out of arguments for the existence of God that said that given that nature displays a certain order and beauty, that there much be some entity who made or organized nature, and this is what we call God, whom we know only indirectly through his creations (ourselves included). In one fell swoop, Hume took the ground out from under both Science and Religion. But Hume meant to give humans not cause for despair, but cause for hope. We may not know the world through the machinations of reason, but this should not lead us to assert that we do not know is any sense at all. In fact we do and must make all sorts of judgments about the world – it is just that our judgments are not based on certainty or reason. The explanation lies not with the world, but with human nature and human psychology. We would be judged mad if we repeatedly put our hand on the stove just because our past experience cannot with certainty predict the future. What does happen has to do with the way that we experience the world as repeating certain consistent patterns (even if we cannot prove it is so, it is still our experience), and through sheer repetition, we learn how to behave in the world inn such a way as to not put ourselves in dangerous position, and to put ourselves in good positions. Hume’s explanation is better that causation, liberating, because it leaves the future open to possibility – the future is in not wholly determined by the past. So, to take a trivial example: Hume talks about how â€Å"we† might be used to associating flees with dogs because, in our experience, these two things always arrive together. But today, now that most dogs and other pets wear flea protection, we do not necessarily associate dogs with flees (but perhaps only with irresponsible pet owners). This last example shows how from our experience in the world, we form expectations, but these expectations are open ended, changeable, and can be either fulfilled or disappointed. In this same way, on the basis of our past and where we come from , we as human form expectations about our future possibilities, but there is nothing at all to say that these expectations will or will not be fulfilled, or changed. Our expectations, buttressed through habit, may be the basis about out beliefs about ourselves and the world. In this sense of the world, belief is not an innate feeling or knowledge of some otherworldly entity, but it is defined as a being sensitive and attuned to our experiences in the world. Because if we are not, then we form bad habits, false expectations, and an inability to make sense of our very own lives. It should be no surprise, then, the Hume did not believe in God – the postulated original cause for all of existence. No causes in the world, no causes of the world – at least that we can know. There is just the world there, and us experiencing it.

Copper Ion Effects On Mung Beans Germination Environmental Sciences Essay

Copper Ion Effects On Mung Beans Germination Environmental Sciences Essay This experiment was planned to investigate the effect of different concentrations on copper ion on seed germination of mung beans. The experiment uses seed germination as a parameter in the presence of varying concentration of copper ion solution (Cu2+) in copper (ii) sulphate (CuSO4). Solutions used were 300 ppm, 200 ppm, 100 ppm, 75 ppm, 50 ppm, 25 ppm, and 0 ppm and the seeds were all soaked for 6 hours, and then sown on Petri dishes with a wetted cotton layer. The seeds were watered with the same volume of Cu2+ solution of respective concentrations. The numbers of seeds germinated were recorded after 20 hours, and the germination rate was calculated. Results showed that germination rate increases as concentration decreases. An analysis was done using the Pearson product-moment correlation coefficient (PMCC), and it showed a statistically significant negative linear relationship between concentration of Cu and germination rate as the calculated r-value was greater than critical va lue (Cr) at 5% significant level. Research and Rationale Plants as micronutrients require a number of heavy metals, which are found naturally in soil.13 However, the global buildup of metals in the environment is increasingly becoming a problem.1 Toxic metals continue polluting the biosphere by volcanoes, natural weathering of rocks, and by industrial activities such as combustion of fossil fuels and mining.2 Heavy metal pollution has accelerated since the beginning of the industrial revolution. Copper (Cu) is one of the main metal pollutants, and usually results from human activities such as mining and the use of fertilizers.4 Cu is an essential element needed in trace amounts in plants, about 4-30 ppm of the approximate dry weight in plants (Raven and Johnson 1999), associated with enzyme activity which catalyses the oxidative reactions in various metabolic pathways.(4) An excess causes a reduce in germination, growth, respiration, photosynthesis and also causes severe membrane decomposition.4 It becomes toxic as it interferes with the enzyme activity, acting as a non-competitive inhibitor, destructing the tertiary bonds in some enzymes, thus altering and inhibiting enzyme activity.4 Human life becomes at risk once these plants develop tolerance mechanisms against Cu, and when these plants are incorporated into our food chain.(2) Mung bean is part of the human food chain as it is a favourite ingredient in Asian food.5 It is commercially grown in many regions of Asia. An ability of it to become Cu tolerant would pose a high risk on human health due to Cu accumulation in the body.2 This investigation also serves to show the type of soils suitable for mung bean growth in agriculture. Soils contaminated by copper or near industries are deemed unsuitable. The seed- Vigna radiata, commonly known as mung beans was chosen as it has a short life cycle and is small, thus large numbers of the seeds can be used as not much space is taken. (487 Words) Germination rate, which is usually expressed in percentage, shows the number of seeds that is likely to germinate; based on a particular plant species.6 Germination is one of the most critical stages of development in a plants life cycle. It is at this stage where the plants are more susceptible to injuries, water stress or diseases. 7 Experimental Hypothesis The lower the concentration of Cu2+ in the solution, the greater the germination rate of mung beans. Null Hypothesis There is no correlation between the different concentrations of Cu2+ in the solution and the germination rate of mung beans. Variables: Manipulated variable : Different concentrations of Cu2+ from Cuso4. (ppm) Responding variable : Germination rate of mung beans (%) Fixed variables : Mass of Cuso4 (g) Volume of solution used for soaking (30 ml/beaker) and for moistening the cotton (50 ml/petri dish) Temperature Light Intensity Humidity (632 Words) Apparatus: Petri dishes Label stickers Weighing balance Dropper Beakers (600 ml) Volumetric flask (1000 ml) Measuring cylinders (100 ml, and 500 ml) Pipette Schott bottles Materials: 3.937g of Cuso4 Distilled water Mung bean seeds (A) Cotton Planning Number of seeds used: 15 The first trial was to determine the condition needed for germination. Three different conditions were identified- in the dark (inside a cupboard), normal laboratory conditions, and outside the laboratory (under normal environment). The seeds were soaked for an hour in distilled water and then sown on wetted cotton. For each condition, three replicates were prepared. The results were observed after 20 hours. (736 Words) Conditions Number of seeds Germinated Mean Number of Seeds Germinated Replicate 1 Replicate 2 Replicate 3 Laboratory 6 9 8 8 In the Cupboard 8 14 11 11 Garden 6 9 5 7 Table 1: Germination rate of seeds in different conditions Germination rate= Number of seeds germinated/Total number of seeds 100 The results showed that the seeds grown in the dark had the highest germination rate. This is in line with what has been written about the germination of mung beans in websites stating that mung beans germinate in darkness.5 Therefore, it was decided that further germination of the seeds would be carried out in the dark under room temperature of 25Â °C in the mornings and 22Â °C during night. The second trial was a combination to find out the most suitable duration to soak the seeds and the best concentrations needed to carry out the experiment. For starters, the concentrations decided were a range from 1000 parts per million (ppm), 750 ppm, 50 ppm, 250 ppm, 100 ppm and 0 ppm (distilled water). The stock solution of 1000 ppm was prepared by the following method. (929 Words) To make 1000 ppm of Cu using CuSo4.5H2o Molar Mass of CuSo4.5H2o= 249.5g Atomic weight of Cu=63.5g 1g of Cu in relation to molar mass of salt= 249.5/63.5 = 3.931g Hence, 3.931g is weighed out from CuSo4.5H2o and dissolved in 1000ml of distilled water to make a standard solution of 1000ppm of Cu.8 From the stock solution, the serial dilution method was applied to make a concentration of 750 ppm. From 1000 ml of the stock solution, 750 ml of the solution was diluted in 250 ml of distilled water in a volumetric flask, to make up 1000 ml of 750 ppm solution of Cu. To make up 500 ppm solution, 500 ml of stock solution was diluted in 500 ml of distilled water and so on. The duration to soak was set to one hour, three hours, six hours and 12 hours. The seeds were soaked in 6 beakers containing the different concentrations, and sown to germinate on Petri dishes. Wetted cotton was used, and the respective concentration of the solution the seeds were soaked in was used to wet the cotton. 15 soaked seeds of similar size were chosen to germinate in two replicates. (1125 Words) Concentration (ppm) Duration of Soaking (Hours) 1 3 6 0 A 10 8 10 B 11 10 10 Mean 11 9 11 Germination Rate (%) 73.3 60.0 73.3 100 A 5 6 13 B 2 2 12 Mean 4 4 13 Germination Rate (%) 26.7 26.7 86.7 250 A 0 5 2 B 0 4 6 Mean 0 5 4 Germination Rate (%) 0 33.3 26.7 500 A 0 0 4 B 0 0 5 Mean 0 0 5 Germination Rate (%) 0 0 33.3 750 A 0 0 0 B 0 0 0 Mean 0 0 2 Germination Rate (%) 0.0 0.0 0.0 1000 A 0 0 0 B 0 0 0 Mean 0 0 0 Germination Rate (%) 0.0 0.0 0.0 Table 2: Germination rate of seeds in different conditions soaked for different durations (1286 Words) Observations were made 20 hours later, and in concentrations of 1000 ppm and 750 ppm, no seeds germinated. 500 ppm was the highest concentration whereby seeds germinated while for 0%, the germination rate was 80%. The seeds that was soaked for six hours showed the highest seed germination rate for the concentrations whereby seeds did germinate. Therefore, it was decided that the best range of concentrations to be used included 0 ppm, and also a value slightly lower than 500 ppm, and the duration of soaking was 6 hours. For seeds soaking in 500 ppm solutions ad above, the seeds appeared slightly purplish, and some even turned black. The seeds germinated at concentration of 500 ppm had its roots stunted with necrotic tips. To ensure the results were more reliable statistically, the number of seeds to be used in the actual experiment was increased to 50 seeds per concentration instead of 15. The actual experiment also included two replicates, using similar methods to obtain more reliable results. The Pearson product-moment correlation coefficient (PMCC) was chosen to analyse the data obtained. Experimental Procedures A stock solution of 1000ppm of Cu2+ was prepared from 3.937g of Cuso4 (as indicated in the trial). The serial dilution method is used to prepare different concentrations of Cu2+ in Cuso4 solution. For example, 10 ml of 1000ppm solution was pipetted out and mixed with 990ml of distilled water in a 1000 ml volumetric flask to obtain a 10ppm solution, and so on. Besides 10 ppm, 25 ppm, 50 ppm, 75 ppm, 100 ppm, 200 ppm, and 300 ppm were prepared and stored in labeled Schott bottles. (1558 Words) At least a 150 seeds were chosen randomly and placed in a beaker to be soaked with a 300 ppm solution (50 ml) for six hours. Two Petri dishes were prepared and labeled A and B. Two layers of white cotton were placed in each Petri dish, spread evenly. The cottons were moistened with 300 ppm solution of the same volume (30 ml). 50 seeds of similar size were chosen and sown in each labeled Petri dish and placed inside the cupboard to germinate. Observation was made 20 hours after sowing. Germination was said to have occurred once the radicle was visibly extended from the surface of the seed for about a minimum of 5mm. The number of seeds germinated was determined, and the mean and the germination rate were calculated. Steps 2 to 8 were repeated for different concentrations- 200 ppm, 100 ppm, 75 ppm, 50 ppm, 25 ppm, and 0 ppm, and all results were recorded in Table 3, a graph was plotted and a PMCC test was used to analyse the data. Risk Assessment All glasswares, such as measuring cylinders and volumetric flask were handled with extra care as they can break easily and may then cause injuries. The soaked seeds were handled with gently as they are very fragile. While using the measuring cylinder, volumetric flask and pipette to measure the amount of solution needed, the eye-level was ensured to be perpendicular with the scale on those apparatus as to prevent parallax error. This was crucial while mixing the stock solution for a little difference may actually affect the percentages of all the other solutions. (1833 Words) Results Concentration (ppm) Number of Seeds Germinated Mean Number of Seeds Germinated Germination Rate (%) A B 0 49 50 50 100 25 46 48 47 94 50 44 45 45 90 75 40 38 39 78 100 15 13 14 28 200 7 10 9 18 300 7 9 8 16 Table 3: Germination of seeds in different concentrations Calculating germination rate: = = = 78% (1910 Words) Statistical Analysis (1932 Words) The PMCC test was chosen to measure the strength of linear dependence between two variables-concentrations and germination rate. The correlation coefficient, r ranges from +1 to -1. A value of zero indicates no linear correlation between the said variables, while +1 indicates a linear equation explains the relationship between concentration and germination rate perfectly, with all the points from the data lying on a line for which germination rate increases as concentration increases. A value of -1 indicates that all points from the data lie on a line whereby germination rate decreases as concentration increases.9 x 0 25 50 75 100 200 300 ∑X=750 y 100 94 90 78 28 18 16 ∑Y=424 x2 0 625 2500 5625 10000 40000 90000 ∑x2= 148750 y2 10000 8836 8100 6084 784 324 256 ∑y2=34384 yx 0 2350 4500 5850 2800 3600 4800 ∑xy= 23900 SS (x) = = =68392.857 SS (y) = = =8701.714 SS (xy) = = = -21528.571 ( Words) The correlation coefficient, r, is found using the formula: = -0.8825 (negative indicating a negative correlation between variables) r = 0.8825 > 0.754 Cr for 5% confidence level. The analysis using PMCC proved a statistically significant negative linear relationship between the concentrations of Cu2+ in CuSO4 and germination rate, as the calculated r value was larger than Cr at 5% confidence level. Hence, null hypothesis is rejected and experimental hypothesis is accepted. A higher concentration of Cu2+ leads to a lower germination rate of mung beans. Data Analysis The statistical analysis using PMCC proved that low concentration of Cu did result in a greater germination rate of mung beans, as shown in Table 3 too which shows the number of seeds germinated after treatment with respective concentrations of Cu2+ in CuSO4 solutions for 20 hours. The table shows that only a very low concentration of Cu allows germination. Graph 1 illustrates the trend and relationship between the variables. It can be seen clearly that as the concentration of Cu2+ in CuSO4 increases, the rate of germination decreases. Distilled water recorded the highest germination at 100%, while the lowest germination rate was noted when the concentration used was 300 ppm. There is a great difference in germination rate from 75 ppm to 100 ppm, about 50%. Increase the concentration from 25 ppm to 50 ppm and 200 ppm to 300 ppm only showed a decrease in 4% and 2% respectively. This may one of the inconsistencies of the experiment. Distilled water, or 0 ppm acted as a control in this experiment. From the results obtained, all the seeds germinated when soaked in distilled water. From the trials, seeds soaked in distilled water did not germinate more than 80%, however in the actual experiment it was 100%. After much research, I concluded that the results obtained from the actual experiment was valid as it supports the results obtained from various other research published.1, 10 The inconsistencies that occurred may have been due to: Some of the seeds may have been already damaged (trials) and so germination was impossible The cotton layers used in 0 ppm during trials were too thick, and became dry fast, thus made it impossible for the seeds to absorb the water and enable germination in 20 hours. Mixing errors could have occurred causing the drop between 75 ppm and 100 ppm, as the concentrations of the solutions could have been higher than it was suppose to be. ( Words) Evaluation The degree of seed germination in the presence of Cu2+ is to some extent a measure of resistance of mung beans to this toxic metal.11 Germination, is a process said to occur when a dormant seed begins sprouting into a seedling, under the right growing conditions.14 This process is highly dependent on external and internal conditions. Light or darkness, temperature, water and oxygen and considered to be the important external conditions that may affect germination. Imbibition, the process by which water is taken up by the seeds, causes the soaked mung bean seeds to swell and start softening, thus the breaking of the seed coat.11, 6 This makes germination easier. Hydrolytic enzymes are activated (due to water), and these enzymes digest the food source in the seeds into chemicals, that are useful metabolically. 6, 7 Excess Cu is detrimental as it becomes toxic. It interferes with the enzyme activity, acting as a non-competitive inhibitor, destructing the tertiary bonds in some enzymes, thus altering and inhibiting enzyme activity.4 It combines with the thiol groups, breaking the hydrogen bonds and disulphide bridges holding the 3-D shape together (of an enzyme). In order to germinate, amylose is needed, and is metabolized by amylase. The interference of toxic level of Cu causes the inhibition of amylases, thus preventing the food store in the cotyledon to be broken down, depriving the embryo from carbohydrate needed for respiration and production of energy for germination.4 ( Words) There were some limitations in this experiment. The temperature of the surroundings is one of it. It was assumed that the temperature in the cupboard was to be 22 and 25 at night and morning respectively. However, along the day, the temperature could have fluctuated. This could have affected the germination process, as the time taken for germination to occur could have been longer. Besides, the humidity of the surroundings was also not measured and thought to be constant all the time. However, due to changes in weather (rain at night, hot sun in the mornings) during the time of experiment, there could have been changes in relative humidity and temperature too. Some of the seeds may have already been damaged but appeared normal. These seeds could have been sown for germination, thus it can be certain that the seeds that did not germinate were purely due to high toxic Cu levels or not. The use of a large sample had given enough replicates to support the conclusion for this experiment. The results are reliable as the experiment can be controlled and also repeated. This investigation only stressed on the effects of Cu on the germination of mung beans, without subjecting the seeds to different abiotic or biotic pressures. Modification could be made by comparing the, effects of other heavy metals such as Nickel, Cadmium and Lead on the germination of mung beans. Besides investigating the rate of germination only, the length of the radicle can measured (plant growth) to see the effects on growth of mung beans. The growth of plants may show a more visible change due to the toxic metals. Plus, other varieties of seeds such as sunflower, orca or cabbage can be used to test the levels of metal toxicity tolerance on other plants species. ( Words) Conclusion With reference to the results obtained and statistical analysis made, it can be concluded that the lower the concentration of Cu in the solution, the greater the germination rate of mung beans, Vigna radiata. This is because Cu is an enzyme, non-competitive inhibitor which alters and inhibits enzyme activity. Thus experimental hypothesis is accepted, while null hypothesis is rejected. Evaluation of Sources Source 7 and 13 are published books written by well-known authors in the scientific community. The source is reliable as it has been revised, recognized and undergone a series of editing before being published. Sources 1,2,3, 10 and 11 are scientific journals. Scholars wrote it and the journals have been peer-reviewed, and have a high level of scientific creditability. Therefore, these sources should contain valid information. Sources 4,5,6,8,9,12 and 14 are websites. These are sites that have been referral site to by many people and the information in it are also cited, thus it is reliable. ( Words) Appendix Figure The apparatus used to make the stock solution-500ml Measuring Cylinder, 100ml Measuring cylinder, 1000ml volumetric flask ( Words)

Instability of the Spanish Colonies

Instability of the Spanish Colonies Section 2: Investigation Many Historians would agree that Spains instability gave their colonies autonomy theyve been waiting for. Spain was ruled by a monarch while Spanish colonies were organized as vice-royalties whose loyalty was with the king. Spain attempted to control every aspect of colonial life through thousands of regulations, by increasing tax revenue, and replacing Creole officers to peninsulares (Strang). Despite Colonies restricted trade, the growing Creole American identity, and the disrespect peninsulares had toward creoles which created discontent among creoles, Spanish colonies did little to change the status quo. Although there were some uprisings in the 1780s such as the Tupac Amaru rebellion, they fought not for their independence and rights but for a change in the system under the monarchy; their slogan was viva el rey y muera al mal gobierno (long live the king and death to bad government) (Strang, popular sovereignty and decolonization). Colonies call for independence was instead tri ggered by an external force: The collapse of Spain (Blaufarb, the Western Question).Napoleons invasion of Spain and the accession of Joseph Bonaparte onto the Spanish throne sparked revolts in Latin America (Strang, popular sovereignty and decolonization), because Bonaparte wasnt seen as their legitimate king. In cities not yet controlled by the French and in Spanish colonies, Juntas were created in the name of the absent king: Ferdinand VII (Strang, popular sovereignty and decolonization). Although the colonies were still loyal to the monarchy, the idea that the power would be given to the people became increasingly prevalent; each city now only had their own interests in mind due to the fact that they couldnt answer to the king. The first two juntas established were the junta of Chuquiasaca in todays Bolivia and of la Paz; the junta of Bolivia was created to reassure its allegiance to the junta central in Spain while Junta of la Paz was created because they wanted to separate from the crown (Donghi, The Contemporary History of Latin America). The establishment of la Paz created tensions in the Americas. Bolivian Historiographers believed it to be the beginning of their struggle for independence (Donghi, The Contemporary History of Latin America). Many juntas created from then on wanted to be part of a government of liberty and independence (Donghi, The Contemporary History of Latin America). Meanwhile in Spain, Bonaparte was still ruling the empire, and was instable more than ever. The invasion depleted Spains assets which started a debate over the nature of sovereignty which will start a civil war (Blaufarb, the Western Question).Communication was also severed between Spain and its colonies after France took control of Spain. The collapse of the Spanish empire and its weakened authority, created an international competition over Spanish colonies (Blaufarb, the Western Question). After the invasion Britain attempted to keep Spanish America together in order to exploit their resources and also keep France from taking control of the colonies (Blaufarb, the Western Question). Since Spain was in chaos, they couldnt enforce trade restrictions giving colonies the freedom to trade with any nation which benefited Britain. Britain therefore had an incentive to use its naval power to keep France from taking over.  Ãƒâ€šÃ‚   Britain loosened their control of the Atlantic aft er the war was over. In 1815, although business went back to normal, tensions increased within the Spanish monarchy; wartime unity among Spaniards to fight against France disappeared after Ferdinand VII regained power, and some even turned against Ferdinand and allied with Latin American rebels to end the monarchy (Blaufarb, the Western Question).To take advantage of Spains instability and declare independence would be seen as treacherous, additionally the colonies were optimistic that Ferdinand would embrace reform which wasnt the case. After it became clear that the colonies will not return to obedience, Ferdinand established oppressive policies (Blaufarb, the Western Question).). As compromises became unattainable, uprisings against the monarchy began to take form and more people were sacrificed. Although many historians agree that the collapse of Spain was caused by the invasion which led to colonies call on independence, historians of the reform era consider the Bourbon reforms to be a crucial cause of the revolts. The colonies started to develop an identity separate to that of Spain because of those reforms(lynch). The change was so great that some historians, such as John Lunch, described them as a second conquest of the Americas (Lynch, the Spanish American Revolutions). During the 2nd half of the 18th century, Bourbon Spain sought to change its economy, society, and institutions; the main reasons of those reforms were the decline of Spains productivity (Lynch, the Spanish American Revolutions). Their goal was to strengthen the kings power, centralize state power through reforms, increase production with trade within the colonies, and increase revenues going to Spain (Lynch, the Spanish American Revolutions). Although those reforms were established in order to bring the colonies closer under Spains control, it isolated the Creole population, strengthened their American Identity and laid groundwork for the wars of independence during the 19th century (Lynch, the Spanish American Revolutions). In an effort to increase silver, and gold production (most revenues comes from mining), the monarchy decreased their taxes in half (Lynch, the Spanish American Revolutions). Bourbon monarchs prevented colonies from competing with goods exported from Spain by reinforcing laws that restricted colonies from trading with other empires with the exception of Spain; laws such as the legal code of 1778 regulations and royal tariffs for free trade (Kuethe and Andrien, The Spanish Atlantic World in the Eighteenth Century). Creole elites unhappy with those restrictions aggravated their sense of alienation from the crown. Measures taken to increase mining production increased workers and slaves labor which also led to their discontent. They succeed their goals of increasin g trade, and royal revenues but also weakened elites and lower classes sense of loyalty to the crown. Spain also established two new viceroyalties (of New Granada and of Rio de la Plata), and excluded most creoles to increase royal control and weaken creoles influence whom they thought had grown too large (Kuethe and Andrien, The Spanish Atlantic World in the Eighteenth Century), again heightening creoles negative sentiments towards Spain. As part of efforts to reinstate royal supremacy, the crown negotiated with Rome giving them a greater authority to nominate and appoint religious authorities (Kuethe and Andrien, The Spanish Atlantic World in the Eighteenth Century). But the most significant religious bourbon reform was the expulsion of the Jesuits who had economical, political and religious power; Creoles who were educated in Jesuits colleges and those who had the same views as Jesuits found their expulsion in 1767 disturbing (Kuethe and Andrien, The Spanish Atlantic World in the Eighteenth Century). The Jesuits expulsion drove another wedge between the crown and Creole elites. The bourbon reforms as a whole ultimately failed to achieve their goals mainly because it deepened divisions between the colonies and Spain. The rising nationalist sentiments in the Americas enabled the formation of a separate American identity and thus laid the groundwork for the wars of independence after The Napoleonic invasion of Spain. The bourbon reforms did weaken colonies loyalty to the crown; it created discontent among Creole elites but wasnt enough to declare independence from Spain. Without the decline of the Spanish empire and Britains naval power which kept France from controlling the colonies, colonies would have never known what true autonomy was like. Although the war for independence would have happened sooner or later, The Napoleonic invasion precipitated those uprisings. The instability in Spain gave colonies a sense of political legitimacy and power. Authority came from the king, laws were obeyed from it came from the king, but now there was no king to obey. The colonies were able to govern themselves as power was now in the hands of the people, allowing them to trade freely. The majority of the colonies waited until Ferdinand VII regained power mainly out of fear, but after it became clear that the king wanted the colonies to return to obedience, the colonies started to revolt for their independenc e. On the other hand, Latin American independence would have eventually happened because of the growing tensions before the Napoleonic war, new enlightened ideas, the American and French revolutions, the financial dependency Spain had which was revealed by the bourbon reforms, and the rise of Creoles influence; the Napoleonic war merely   precipitated the revolts.

Water Shortage in the Middle East Essay -- Environmental Science Ecolo

Water is the main source of life on the Earth. It is vital for normal existence and functioning of organisms. Earth is sometimes called â€Å"water planet.† But, in fact, the number of freshwater is limited. â€Å"Only about 2 percent of the planet's water is fresh.† (How much water is there on Earth?) This water is not enough even to meet daily needs of mankind. According to World Health Organization, â€Å"a lack of water to meet daily needs is a reality today for one in three people around the world.† (2009) In the Middle East the situation is especially hard. This region is thought to be one of the droughtiest places in the world, most of it’s territory is deserted. Freshwater accounts to 1 percent of the world’s supplies, while the population comes to 5 percent. (Baroudy 2005, 15) And this problem seems to become worse day after day. From the middle of the XX century demand on freshwater has increased three times. And this statistics will continue to grow with population rise and industrial development. Water scarcity is a huge problem, because it may have a number of economical, social and political consequences. Bad harvest and famine are one of them (Brown 2008, 16). Also lack of water for elementary daily needs will lead to insanitariness. This will increase risk of spreading such diseases as typhoid, cholera and dysentery (10 facts about water scarcity 2009). Also disastrous water shortage in the Middle East may change existent struggle into regional conflict. It is evident that this problem needs to be immediately solved. There are few possible solutions and some of them are already applied by this time. All of them have some advantages and disadvantages. The target of humanity is to find the best one. Firstly, one possible solut... ...ana/ (accessed November 20, 2010) Brown, D. 2007. Few alternatives in the Middle East. The Times. 13 April, 22. Newspaper Source. http://web.ebscohost.com/ (accessed November 20, 2010) Brown, L.R. 2008. Draining our future: The growing shortage of freshwater. The Futurist 42 (3): 16-22. Academic Search Premier. http://web.ebscohost.com/ (accessed November 20, 2010) Conway, M. 2008. The desalination solution. The Futurist (42) 3: 23-24. Academic Search Premier. . http://web.ebscohost.com/ (accessed November 20, 2010) Davidson, S. 2005. Making water – hold the salt. ECOS (124): 23-36. Academic Search Premier. http://web.ebscohost.com/ (accessed November 20, 2010) How much water is there on Earth? n.d. http://science.howstuffworks.com/environmental/earth/ (accessed November 20, 2010) Middle East Water Shortage. n.d. http://hydrology1.nmsu.edu/hydrology/wastewater/

Marriage Proposal in Pride and Prejudice Essay -- Pride Prejudice Essa

Marriage Proposal in Pride and Prejudice During "Pride and Prejudice" there are six examples of marriage proposals to consider. Throughout this essay I am going to be commenting on the proposals between Mr Darcy and Lizzie the first time, Mr Collins and Lizzie, Mr Collins and Charlotte as well as Mr Bingley and Jane, Wickham and Lydia and the second proposal of Mr Darcy to Lizzie. Whilst looking at these proposals I will also be analysing the aspects of Love, Money, the relative status and class and the views of others, which might have influence within these proposals. The first proposal I am going to analyse is Mr Darcy to Lizzie. Mr Darcy proposed to Lizzie in Kent at Mr Collins and Charlotte's house when Lizzie was visiting them for a few weeks and Mr Darcy was staying with Lady Catherine De Bourgh, his aunt. Mr Darcy and Lizzie were first acquainted with one another at Netherfield's, which is the neighbouring estate to Longbourne, Lizzie's family house. They met at a ball, which was held by the new lodger Mr Bingley at Netherfield's, and Mr Darcy was there as a friend of Mr Bingley's who hosting the ball for his new arrival to the village. Lizzie and Darcy didn't get on at first as Lizzie thought he was arrogant and unsociable. But Mr Darcy's dislike for Lizzie gradually grew to love for her. It seems that the continuation of this dislike was all a cover for his real feelings as he did not want to love or marry a woman who was beneath him in every state, money and status and especially the views of others would of discouraged him to act upon his feelings for Lizzie as he was thought of as much more superior to Lizzie and her family and at that time it was thought of as wrong or unheard of to mar... ...an to get married over that age. There were also many issues that a woman had to think about before they got married, whether they were in love which wasn't a major issue but it was though of as a bonus if they were. Money and status played a huge role in deciding who to marry, rich men went for women of the same class or a bit higher which made it difficult for woman of a lower class or without much wealth to marry a wealthier or higher classed man. It was thought of as unethical to marry someone beneath you in any state. The influence of others played a big role in those days as people were put under a lot of pressure to get married as soon as possible and to someone higher up the society ladder. As you can see the attitudes to marriage in the 19th Century in which these characters lived in is very different to the attitudes in which we live in today.

Food, Values and Identity in the Middle Ages Essay

Food is one of the basic essentials for humans to live. The food we eat gives us the sustenance for our daily duties. Even during the ancient times, humans had a wide variety of foodstuffs to choose from with meat and plant food as the two general categories (Adamson, 2004). However, even if there are same food resources all around the world, what people eat vary from one culture to another, thus there were variations on how they cook different foods and how they eat. As time progressed, simple meals became elaborate with the continuous addition of different ingredients to make it more palatable to the taste of many. Diets of people evolve, depending on their needs, status, time periods and of course, the availability of the food itself. Through food, some people are able to show their values or principles that they believe in. For example, Muslims do not eat pork because the pig is considered as a dirty animal in their religion. The food people consume is sometimes used to characterize them (Scholliers, 2001), not only as individuals but as part of a group. All over the world, food portrayed a great role in shaping humans, their values, identity and the society and period they live in. One notable period in history is the Middle Ages. It was the time when there were many political, social, economic and social changes and the period which also led to the transformation of many European states (MSN Encarta, 1993-2008). What role did food play in the medieval ages? What was its relationship between values and identity in the period of the Middle Ages? It is interesting to note how food contributed to the culture of the people during these times of immense changes in the society and way of living of people. Eating in the Middle Ages was distinguished for the different social classes of people that lived during that time. For peasants and those who lived in poverty, their diet consisted mainly of vegetables and cereals. It was said by Mennell (1985) that descriptions of how the poor ate can be seen from the some of Chaucer’s and Langland’s writing. Serfs were provided by their lords’ limited variety and amount of foodstuffs, mainly consisting of bread, a morsel of cheese, ale or cider and dish of either fish or meat. This fish and meat were usually eaten during special occasions but it was still a known fact that meat was a luxury to the poor (Ferreires, 2006). It was also said that the poor was also associated to eating dairy products (Mennell, 1985) while the rich people had a disregard for them. Meat was always associated with the rich and it was them who always had a plentiful supply. Selling of meat was complicated during the time of the Middle Ages. There were many rules regarding butchering and the sale of meat in Europe (Ferreires, 2006). These rules were created for health reasons and so as to create a good quality of products for the buyers. These rules were also specific; one of them is that any flesh or meat dying of other means aside from butchering must be burned. Slaughtering of an animal also had strict standards and the market was strictly supervised as well by the lords of the city. In this aspect, meat was not only used as part of a recipe or dish but also for political purposes because charters created for the sale of meat were watched over closely by the lords of the city (Ferreires, 2006). There were different kinds of butcher shops found around the city, the town butcher shop and the common butcher shop. These two kinds of shops were different because they sell different qualities of meats (Ferreires, 2006). These meats were mostly for the consumption of the rich because the town butcher shops sold high quality meats while the common butcher shop sold, though not low quality, meat sold there was considered as second rate Ferreires, 2006). Poor people had another option where they can buy meat and this was a free market where decaying meat could be bought. Although there were strict rules for selling of meat, selling rotting meat was not prohibited as long as they sell it outside the town so people can make a distinction on where they can buy fresh meat and where to but the decaying ones. Ferreires (2006, p. 48) noted that for those who live in the country though, it was not a problem for them to find food since they also produce their own and sometimes tended animals. On the other hand, those who lived in the city, though could also produce their own food, remained as consumers since most of the markets could be found in the city. Even if there was a social distribution of food among the people during the Middle Ages, how food was cooked was very simple for both rich and the poor. Slow boiling (Mennell, 1985) was the major method in which food was cooked during the Middle Ages primarily because the meals prepared during this time were dominated by soup. In most cases, the soup prepared for the meal contained meat, together with onions, cabbages and beans. For the poor, sometimes food was simply cooked in boiling water or milk. Little is known about the recipes that people cooked during the Middle Ages. However, cooking manuscripts were also created during these times (Mennell, 1985). Much of these manuscripts are similar to what we would call as recipe books or cookbooks. But these cooking manuscripts were generally created for the upper class because you will find recipes in these manuscripts as the ones prepared by cooks at the dinner tables of the rich and nobility. Most of the recipes in medieval cuisine particularly focused on the ingredients and the combination of flavors that is put into a dish. Unfortunately, the first recorded recipes were vague, written with lack of precision on how it was cooked, how much of an ingredient was needed and what utensils were used. Earliest recipes in the Middle Ages were seen simply as a list of ingredients. Most writers of the culinary manuscripts were anonymous and it was difficult to trace more information about the recipes. But with the emergence of the master-chefs, cooks who wrote recipes from personal experience, specifying details of the dish to be cooked, written recipes evolved. This evolution of recipes may have also been attributed to the evolving culinary techniques, practices and strategies of the cooks that time. Other factors, such as introduction of a new ingredient, new found use of a utensil contributed to the evolution or improvement of medieval recipes (Adamson, 1995). Food preparation became more elaborate. Together with the evolution of the recipes, more and more cooks and chefs came out from their anonymity and were recognized. They were then appropriately recognized for their collection of recipes. We can say that food was able to give identity to the chefs such as those who provided the people with new recipes in medieval cooking manuscripts. According to Mennell (1985, p. 49), there were four best known cookery manuscripts from late medieval Northern Italy which had many points in common with each other and probably has one source. Food would then be used to signify wealth and rank in the medieval cuisine. Food prepared for the rich may not necessarily taste delectable but they should certainly look appetizing. There were also certain foodstuffs that gave the rich their identity to the rich because they are the only ones who can easily access it, such as meat which was mentioned earlier. The saying â€Å"You are what you eat,† can be taken literally because whatever food that goes into our body contributes to how our bodies are made of. Whatever food an individual eats gives them the physical identity. Identity is the set of characteristics by which an individual possesses, as he or she is recognizable as a member of a certain group. All human beings have identities, so we will have something to identify with, to give us a sense of belongingness. Without people realizing it, the food we eat was a huge factor in determining our identity. For example, we usually identify countries with the foods that can commonly be found in them (not necessarily crops). We also sometimes identify certain groups of people to the food they eat. In the Middle Ages, we already mentioned that the evolution of the recipe writing was able to give identity to the chefs of that time. They became more respected because they did not just conform to old traditional recipes but they created their own styles in making dishes. The social classes during the Middle Ages were also given identities by the food they eat. The rich and nobility for example was usually identified with meat and many other variety of food that was accessible to them. While for the commoner, it was vegetables and dairy that was clearly identified with them (Mennell 1985). More food was of course accessible to the rich because they had more money to buy a wider variety of foodstuffs than the commoner. Their diet consisted mainly of fresh bread, cheese, meat and wine. Relationship between identity and food in the Middle Ages could also be seen in the prescribed diets of the time. Foods that were coarse, heavy and inexpensive were prescribed to eat by those workers who had heavy physical work. They were supposed to become more accustomed to these kinds of foods because these foods would be able to sustain the energy they consume up in their work. Other foods which may not be acceptable and considered unpleasant to eat such as nerves, tendons, and innards were included in the list of prescribed foods for the laborer. These laborers then would be given the identity that they have tough stomachs because of the many repulsive foods that they can eat (Ferreires, 2006). On the other hand, the rich or those with inactive lifestyles such as the scholar were prescribed to eat lighter foods such as white bread, white wine and the white meat of the chicken because this foods suits best the brain activity (Ferreires, 2006). They were advised as well to lessen their physical activity, anything that may become hindrance to their brain activity. In turn, they would be more identified with gentler stomachs, one that cannot or should not digest or intake foods eaten by the laborers because they do not consume too much energy as workers do. Although food has a great role in the identity formation during the Middle Ages, it should not be deduced that food is a major factor in identity formation because there are still many factors such as in social, economic and political aspects that should be considered when looking at people’s identities. Another role that food may have a relationship with is values in the Middle Ages. The relationship between food and values goes a long way back to ancient history. Values were held by individuals as something that they believe in firmly. The relationship between food and values in the Middle Ages may be closely linked to religion. Early accounts of prescribed diets can be found in the Bible. Animal flesh was primarily used as sacrificial offering to God Adam and Eve were not allowed to eat meat and according to Adamson (2004), it was only after Noah and those who followed after him were the ones allowed to eat meat. It was under Moses that the dietary rules were changed and there were certain animals that cannot be eaten because they were unclean and consuming blood was also prohibited. People followed these rules strictly as it is written in the Bible. The holy meal of the body and blood of Christ were represented by the wine and bread which people must take to receive the Holy Spirit. Since the holy meal was represented at the body and blood of Christ, according to the religious teachings of the Middle Ages, people were eating the God who suffered and died on the cross. Therefore the act of eating the holy meal was like an act of suffering with God as well (Adamson, 2004). Another value important to people in the Middle Ages was the voluntary act of withholding food or fasting. It was also an act of suffering, because you are denying a basic need of your body. By withholding food, you are somehow telling the gods that you are willing to do anything for them to grant whatever wishes or prayers you have. Taking part in communal fasting also gives the feeling of belongingness of a person. People were striving for purity during this time and fasting was one ay of cleansing the body. Connections were made between gluttony (eating too much) and lechery (excessive indulgence in sexual activities) so many people took part in fasting to purify themselves. However, fasting was not an act of eating nothing at all but eating simple foods such as bread, salt and water only. Fasting was primarily done not to starve people who take part in it but to control themselves in indulging in too much food, thus controlling the desires of their body and to prepare themselves for receiving the divine truth (Adamson, 2004). Fasting was not only taken seriously by holy people such as monks but a number of girls who loved in the Middle Ages which became the cause of their deaths. This was termed â€Å"holy anorexia† according to Adamson (2004, p. 195) because these girls starved themselves to death and sometimes imposed immense pain to their bodies. Most of these girls were not really poor but wanted to be in control of their lives, seeing to it that at that time, the only options for females were either to marry or enter the convent. By denying themselves food, they were somehow able to gain control of their lives and not simply being a slave to the tradition. Lastly, the link of food and values to religion are laws about clean and unclean foods and food preparation during religious rituals and festivals. According to Adamson (2004, p. 199) both Jews and Christians in medieval Europe observed the same Jewish festivals where food played an important role. There were certain foods that cannot be eaten during these festivals such as bitter and black foods. One of the rules Jews have is that animals should be slaughtered in such a way that all the blood must be drained out because it is prohibited for them to consume blood. Food in the Middle Ages was used to associate certain groups of people and individuals because the foods they ate were â€Å"identified† with them, such as the rich and meat and vegetables for the poor. These foods were the most accessible and available to them thus giving them the identity like, if you usually eat meat, you are considered as a rich person. However, it might be dangerous to conclude that food determines the identity of an individual or a group because there are still a lot of factors to be considered when determining one’s identity. The relationship between food and values is closely linked to religion because there were particular foods that were considered as â€Å"clean and unclean† by different religions. Values of the people are affected by the food they ate because they wanted to follow the set of laws in their religion. They show their beliefs through avoiding the foods considered unclean and eating only the clean. They also show these by following certain rules that some foods cannot be eaten on certain days. Lastly, food was also used as a powerful tool to show one’s value as some of the women in the Middle Ages were able to use food to gain control in their lives. Food truly portrayed a great role in the Middle Ages and how it came to shape the values and identity of how people lived during those times. Food was also able to contribute to the rich culture that medieval Europe had. Its contribution to identity and values in the Middle Ages can prove that eating is not simply a biological way of providing energy for individuals to keep up with daily life. References Adamson, M. W. (1995). Food in the Middle Ages: A Book of Essays. New York: Garland Publishing Adamson, M. W. (2004). Food in Medieval Times. Connecticut: Greenwood Press. Bynum, C. (1987). Holy Feast and Holy Famine. Berkley. Carlin M. and Rosenthal J. (Eds. ). (1998). Food and Eating in Medieval Europe. London. Ferreires, M. (2006). Sacred cow Mad Cow A History of food Fears. New York. Columbia University Press. Mennell, S. (1985). All Manners of Food: Eating and Taste in England and France from the Middle Ages to Present. Oxford. MSN Encarta. (1993-2008). The Middle Ages. Retrieved May 6, 2008 from http://encarta. msn. com/encyclopedia_761578474/Middle_Ages. html Scholliers, P. (2001). Food, Drink and Identity: Cooking, Eating and Drinking in Europe since the Middle Ages. Oxford: Berg Woolgar, C. et al. (2006). Food in Medieval England: diet and Nutrition. Oxford.

Write about some of the ways Fitzgerald tells the story in chapter 1 of The Great Gatsby

Fitzgerald’s autobiographical first person means of telling the story in a way that takes the reader into his confidence by retelling a recollection of significant events. It is immdeiatly noticeable that Fitzgerald’s sentence structure is complex and his vocabulary sometimes obscure â€Å"only Gatsby, the man who gives this book its name was exempt from my reaction – Gatsby, who represented everything I was scornful of. If personality is an unbroken series of successful gestures, then there was something gorgeous about him† Fitzgerald asserts the idea that although Nick Caraway is the should narrator of this book, the story is about a much greater man – one whom the narrator is set to admire so much that the use of language to describe him gives Nick a new view on a set of people he once hated, so much so, he decides to write a book about him. Fitzgerald introduces Nick just returning to the Midwest after the civil war, he settles in the â€Å"west egg† but finds himself starting the story by visiting his cousin Daisy and Tom â€Å"the consoling proximity of millionaires† in the much more glamorous east egg, Fitzgerald is perhaps emphasising this was the norm for Nick having grown up with such people as a child. Fitzgerald begins the story with a generalisation of himself â€Å"I’ m inclined to reserve all judgements† separating himself from the likes of other judgemental upper class characters, which whom are given the most attention to. The likes of characters such as Daisy, Tom and Jordan are given almost choric voices â€Å"well you ought to see her she’s-â€Å" the characters constantly cutting each other off with ongoing information to the story such as rumours â€Å"he’s got some woman in new York† the idea of scandal and covered up rumours seems to dominate this chapter, although Jordan has only just met Nick, Fitzgerald does not hold back on writing Jordan so she already reveals a huge scandalous piece of gossip emphasising how these characters. Fitzgerald presents women in this chapter in a very unusual way â€Å"splendidly, luagiduly, their hands set lightly on their hips, the two young women proceeded us out on to a rosy coloured porch† the imagery of two young women leading them into this heavenly place emphasises them as delicate and beautiful â€Å"for a moment the last sunshine fell romantically upon her glowing face† the sensual imagery Tom uses to describe Jordan presents some type of respect Fitzgerald is able to see for women, however it is contrasted to a much lower view of women when Daisy states â€Å"that’s the best thing a woman can be in this world – a beautiful fool† where she expresses her opinion that a woman can only get by on looks and total ignorance to how a man should treat her. Some readers are irritated by nick caraway as a narrator, what is your view of Nick as a narrator? Fitzgerald’s interesting and intelligent use of such a character is in no way a mist ake, he would have been aware of the dangers from such an unusual means of narrating, however it works very well and makes this book the success it is. The use of Nick as more of a spector than an actual narrator involves us as readers and allows us to make up our own minds about the characters rather than having a central character as a narrator who may be in love with Daisy or hate Tom, whose language would then shape our own opinion of them. Nick is able to re-call past events in a very serious tone but yet at the same time his sensual and light-headedness description on small matters reflect pleasure onto the reader â€Å"I had two – finger bowels of champagne, and the scene had changed before my eyes into something significant, elemental and profound† commenting on small humorous parts of the story make the reader more able to relate as in our own lives we would notice such changes after a drink, Fitzgerald gives nick very realistic qualities here which means the story is more lifelike for the reader to enjoy. However, there are some aspects of the story in sensual description where Nick elevates his dramatic and in depth description that may not be so down to earth, but neither the less engage the reader in the very beautifully worded lines. â€Å"for a moment the last sunshine fell romantically upon her glowing face† the way in which women are presented through Nick’s eyes gain him a certain amount of respect for him as a narrator which will gain to the reader’s interest in his own characteristics, he is clearly a very passionate and respectable man in his romantic interests which in many ways erase from the reader’s mind any doubts they may of had at the start of his attitude to women when it is told he left a woman behind to move to the east egg. It is easy to suggest that without Nick’s descriptive detail and constant symbolism, the novel would have been a better less obscure portrayal of events, however without Nick’s ignorance and unfamiliarity to Gatsby at the start, Fitzgerald would have never been able to create this sense of enigma around him that engages the reader about this unknown mysterious character. â€Å"He stretched out his arms in a curious way towards the water, and, far as I was from him, I could have sworn he was trembling†. Fitzgerald also uses such a character as he is able to connect more with Gatsby upon living in the same less glamorous egg; they are in many ways similar through their views on life, money and love – a realistic friendship. Scott Fitzgerald was interested in many ways to present Gatsby through Nick; he stated once how â€Å"symbolism can produce a kind of magical transformation in which the physical world might, through an act of imagination, come to assume the quality of ideal†. So at the end of the novel Nick no longer looks at the world through symbolism as he remarks â€Å"he must have looked up at a familiar sky through frightening lease and shivered as he found was grotesque thing a rose is and how raw the sunlight was upon the secrecy grass† Fitzgerald here uses this technique to cut Nick’s symbolic language on beautiful things, to mirror the down turn of events and keep in with the language to reflect the mood of gloom the reader may be feeling, again heightening the reader’s opinion of Nick, as he is many ways realistic when it comes to the language he uses to express events that aren’t so glamorous. The use of Nick as a narrator is without a doubt a genius idea from Fitzgerald. He was able to contrast the norm and expected narrator but yet at the same time engage the reader with it. The writer is kept realistic, with real romances such as his relationship with Jordan giving him his own story but yet still present Gatsby i n the intelligent and beautiful way Fitzgerald intended.

Boost Juice Case Study Essay

3 reasons for Boost Juice experiencing economies of scale 1 – Purchasing inputs and raw materials in bulk †¢ Buying in bulk means that the average cost of each unit of raw material is cheaper than if each unit was bought individually †¢ In one year alone, Boost juice goes through more than 35 tonnes of mangos and you still have all of the other range of fruits that are bought. Therefore buying in bulk means that the average cost of the raw material decreases which therefore, using the value chain, means that the average cost per output decreases as output increases. †¢ As the order value increases, a business obtains more bargaining power with suppliers. It may be able to obtain discounts and lower prices for the raw materials 2- Cheaper marketing costs pet outlet †¢ Due to the rapid expansion of boost since it was established in 2000 (on average one new boost store opens every 4 days) has meant that the cost of advertising per outlet has decreased (e.g. if you had one outlet and advertising cost $10,000 and then the business expanded to 10 outlets it would mean that cost of advertising per outlet would go from $10,000 to $1000) †¢ This has enabled boost to undergo further marketing strategies which in turn brings more consumers to the product meaning that the price of each unit output would decrease 3- Economies of scale can be defined as reductions in costs per unit of output as output increases and so therefore arise when the cost per unit falls as output increases. They are the ‘savings of size’ if a firm is able to increase the size of its plant or operations in the long run production period. A business that is experiencing economies of scale in the present is the smoothie and juice making company called Boost Juice. Established in  2000, Boost Juice, managed by successful entrepreneur Janine Allis, is a business that has been able to be extremely successful through domination of their market and a number of marketing strategies that has enabled them to grow in size and thus currently be experiencing economies of scale. Since the very first Boost Juice was opened in 2000, the next 6 years saw the opening of 189 new stores and the rapid growth is still occurring today. There are two main types of economies of scale, internal and external each of which are leading factors as to why a business may currently be expericing economies scale. Within this case study of the highly profitable and highly successful business Boost Juice I will be discussing 3 of the reasons why Boost Juice are currently experiencing economies of scale which are bulk buying, cheaper marketing costs and —————— As stated above, economies of scale can occur due to both internal and external factors. One of the key internal factors of which has led to Boost Juice experiencing economies of scale is bulk-buying of raw materials and other inputs. Bulk buying can be defined as buying goods/ materials/ other inputs in large quantities which becomes highly relevant to business that are undergoing or have already expanded as a business due to the cost benefits that are associated with bulk buying. The leading cost benefit associated with the bulk buying is that the average cost of each unit of raw material is far cheaper that if each unit were bought individually. As businesses grow its essential that they order larger quantities of production inputs so that they can meet the increased demand and production. As the order value of wanted raw materials increases a business is able to obtain monopsony (buying) power with its supplier/s. This is extremely applicable to Boost Juice. Boost Juice is a highly successful fruit juice retailer thus requiring extremely large quantities of fruit (along with the other needed inputs). In one year, Boost Juice goes through more than 35 tonnes of mangoes alone and when you consider all of the other fruits that Boost Juice will have to purchase as inputs there is an extremely large quantity of fruit that needs to be supplied. Therefore buying in bulk is much more cost effective as it makes the unit price per input much cheaper through the cost volume benefits of buying in bulk. Therefore, Boost Juice has been able to experience economies of scale in the present through bulk  buying which drastically reduces the unit price per input, which reduces the cost of output.